Study finds digital care technologies could both support and strain the 5.8 million unpaid carers in the UK, with benefits and risks to those they care for.
From parenting apps to elderly care robots, digital technologies are reshaping the way millions care for their loved ones around the world, but at what cost to privacy, wellbeing and human connection?
Technology is often seen as the answer to the growing pressures of social care, both for policy and in the media. Yet the focus is mainly on paid care, ignoring the millions of unpaid family members and friends who support and care for their loved ones every day. There has been no systematic evaluation of the potential risks linked to digital care technologies for those providing and receiving unpaid family care.
In England, unpaid carers outnumber those paid to provide care by 2:1. The economic value of the support provided by unpaid carers in the UK is now estimated at £184 billion a year.
Researchers from the Oxford Internet Institute at the University of Oxford reviewed evidence from 83 studies on the impact of digital technologies on unpaid care work in the US, Europe, urban China and South Korea. They found that while digital care technologies offer potential benefits, they are also fundamentally and systematically changing the nature of care, bringing with them certain risks. Benefits include convenience, enabling remote care, improving coordination between carers and providing access to a supportive online community.
The associated risks include:
The technologies assessed through the studies ranged from telehealth tools to elderly care robots. They included technologies for supervision (baby monitors or location monitoring for the elderly or adolescents); for communication or coordination between carers (school or nursery apps); and for finding information (online forums or parenting apps).
Dr Ekaterina Hertog, Associate Professor of AI and Society at Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, led the research. She said:
“We urgently need better regulation that specifically addresses care technologies. These technologies are already in our homes, and we need to be sure their use is ethically managed. Tech companies are often opaque about how they gather and use data, with people having little control over the process. In some places like the US, the regulations that govern this area are weak. In Europe, they are incomplete, with specific provisions protecting children’s, but not vulnerable adults’ data. This isn’t an area that should be purely left to market forces, given how essential care is to society.
“There are also positives that can come from digital care technologies, helping both carers and the cared-for. What’s important is that people have the right to choose the kind of care they want to receive. And like many digital technologies, care tech works best when used to support positive human relationships, not replace the physical connection that is at their heart.”
The research is published in The Oxford Review of Economic Policy.
Notes for Editors:
For more information and briefings, please contact:
Sara Spinks / Veena McCoole, Media and Communications Manager, Oxford Internet Institute
M: +44 (0)7551 345493 E: press@oii.ox.ac.uk
Abigail Chard / Dan Richards-Doran, Campus PR & Communications
M: +44 (0)7957 351810 E: enquiries@campuspr.co.uk
About the research: ‘The risks and opportunities of adopting digital technologies as part of unpaid care’ by Ekaterina Hertog, Lulu Shi and Lily Rodel is published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, vol. 41, issues 3-4, 2025. Data on the number of carers in the UK is from the 2021 Census; data on the economic value of unpaid care is from research by the Centre for Care, accessed via Carers UK: Key facts and figures | Carers UK. Data on the proportion of unpaid to paid carers in England is from the Carers UK report: Identifying and supporting unpaid carers in England to improve integrated system working (p.4).
About the Oxford Internet Institute (OII)
The Oxford Internet Institute (OII) has been at the forefront of exploring the human impact of emerging technologies for 25 years. As a multidisciplinary research and teaching department, we bring together scholars and students from diverse fields to examine the opportunities and challenges posed by transformative innovations such as artificial intelligence, large language models, machine learning, digital platforms, and autonomous agents.
About the University of Oxford
Oxford University has been placed number one in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for the tenth-year running, and number two in the QS World Rankings 2022. At the heart of this success are the twin-pillars of our ground-breaking research and innovation and our distinctive educational offer. Oxford is world-famous for research and teaching excellence and home to some of the most talented people from across the globe.
Associate Professor in AI and Society
Ekaterina Hertog is an Associate Professor of AI and Society at Oxford Internet Institute and Institute for Ethics in AI. She studies how the rising digitalisation is reshaping private lives across the world.
Research Associate
Lulu Shi is a sociologist working on projects investigating the intersection between society and technology. Her research interests include digital sociology, sociology of education, work and employment.
DPhil Student
Lily is a DPhil student at the Oxford Internet Institute. Her research focuses on gender inequality and remote work.
With mobile devices ubiquitous among young people, it is not surprising that parents are increasingly turning to technology for help in childcare. This project examines monitoring technologies and how parents use them as part of child supervision.
